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IZA
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Experimental Effects of an Absent Crowd on Performances and Refereeing Decisions during COVID-19
by
Alex Bryson, Peter Dolton, J. James Reade, Dominik Schreyer, Carl Singleton
(August 2020)
published as 'Causal effects of an absent crowd on performances and refereeing decisions during Covid-19' in: Economic Letters , 2021, 198, 109664
Abstract:
The Covid-19 pandemic has induced worldwide natural experiments on the effects of crowds. We exploit one of these experiments currently taking place over several countries in almost identical settings: professional football matches played behind closed doors. We find large and statistically significant effects on the number of yellow cards issued by referees. Without a crowd, fewer cards were awarded to the away teams, reducing home advantage. These results have implications for the influence of social pressure and crowds on the neutrality of refereeing decisions.
Text: See Discussion Paper No. 13578 
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